[Neutropenic enterocolitis in the pediatric cancer patient]. / Enterocolitis neutropénica en el paciente oncológico pediátrico.

Neutropenic enterocolitis (NEC) is a heterogeneous disease of the gastrointestinal tract with systemic response, that corresponds to a severe and life-threatening clinical condition in immunocompromised patients, especially in childhood cancer. The pathologic features are poorly understood, although its multifactorial cause of NEC is well established and it is associated with the cytotoxic effects of the chemotherapy agents used and recognized by the classic triad of fever, neutropenia, and abdominal pain, secondary to gastrointestinal injuries that alters mucosal permeability and helps intramural bacterial invasion. NEC is truly a clinical challenge that requires an early diagnosis and a multidisciplinary approach including basic laboratory and imagological tests in high complexity centers. We present a current review, adding epidemiological aspects, risks factors, diagnostic support elements, therapeutic considerations, and preventive measures in order to provide knowledge of this disease and help to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with it.

Enterocolitis neutropénica en el paciente oncológico pediátrico / Neutropenic enterocolitis in the pediatric cancer patient

Resumen La enterocolitis neutropénica (ECN) es una enfermedad heterogénea de foco digestivo, pero afectación sistémica, que corresponde a una condición clínica grave que amenaza la vida de pacientes inmunocomprometidos, particularmente oncológicos pediátricos. De patogenia aún poco definida y aunque de causa multifactorial, la ECN se asocia a los efectos citotóxicos de la quimioterapia empleada y se caracteriza por la triada clásica que incluye fiebre, neutropenia y dolor abdominal, donde la principal injuria se localiza en la mucosa intestinal, provocando su alteración como barrera y facilitando la invasión bacteriana intramural. La ECN constituye un reto diagnóstico para el equipo tratante, que requiere ser oportuno y contar con apoyo de un óptimo laboratorio general e imagenológico, para iniciar un completo manejo multidisciplinario en unidades y centros de alta complejidad. Se presenta una revisión actualizada del tema incorporando aspectos epidemiológicos, factores de riesgo, elementos de apoyo diagnóstico, consideraciones terapéuticas y medidas de prevención a fin de aportar en el conocimiento de esta patología, y reducir morbimortalidad en estos pacientes.

Abstract Neutropenic enterocolitis (NEC) is a heterogeneous disease of the gastrointestinal tract with systemic response, that corresponds to a severe and life-threatening clinical condition in immunocompromised patients, especially in childhood cancer. The pathologic features are poorly understood, although its multifactorial cause of NEC is well established and it is associated with the cytotoxic effects of the chemotherapy agents used and recognized by the classic triad of fever, neutropenia, and abdominal pain, secondary to gastrointestinal injuries that alters mucosal permeability and helps intramural bacterial invasion. NEC is truly a clinical challenge that requires an early diagnosis and a multidisciplinary approach including basic laboratory and imagological tests in high complexity centers. We present a current review, adding epidemiological aspects, risks factors, diagnostic support elements, therapeutic considerations, and preventive measures in order to provide knowledge of this disease and help to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with it.

[Impact of the vancomycin and amikacin therapeutic monitoring in the optimization of antimicrobial dose in pediatric patients]. / Impacto del monitoreo terapéutico de vancomicina y amikacina en la optimización de dosis de antimicrobianos en pacientes pediátricos.

BACKGROUND: The monitoring of antimicrobial therapy through plasma levels makes it possible to determine the optimal dosage of antimicrobials, an essential approach in pediatrics. AIM: To describe the monitoring of plasma antimicrobial levels and dose adjustment in the pediatric population to determine if the doses used reach therapeutic ranges. METHODS: Retrospective, descriptive study using a database with measurement of plasma levels of amikacin and vancomycin in pediatric patients at San Borja Arriarán Hospital between 2015-2018. The number of patients who reached the therapeutic range with the initial dose, how many required adjustment and their characteristics were determined. RESULTS: 104 total levels were monitored. For vancomycin 65 plasmatic levels were baseline, being outside the therapeutic range 56.5%; 25% of those requiring adjustment were neonates with a higher probability of being out of range versus others (p = 0.022). For amikacin, Cpeak was in range in 60% of measurements; 15.4% required adjustment, including patients with cystic fibrosis and cancer, without adjustments in patients without comorbidity. CONCLUSION: Measurement of plasma levels is necessary to individually adjust the dose, especially in pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis, oncology and in neonatology where it is more likely not to reach a therapeutic range with initial doses.

Impacto del monitoreo terapéutico de vancomicina y amikacina en la optimización de dosis de antimicrobianos en pacientes pediátricos / Impact of the vancomycin and amikacin therapeutic monitoring in the optimization of antimicrobial dose in pediatric patients

INTRODUCCIÓN: La monitorización de antimicrobianos mediante sus concentraciones plasmáticas permite determinar la posología óptima de éstos, conducta esencial en pediatría. OBJETIVOS: Describir la monitorización de concentraciones plasmáticas de antimicrobianos y el ajuste de dosis en población pediátrica para determinar si las dosis utilizadas alcanzan rangos terapéuticos. PACIENTES Y MÉTODOS: Estudio descriptivo, retrospectivo, utilizando una base de datos con medición de concentraciones plasmáticas de amikacina y vancomicina en pacientes pediátricos del Hospital San Borja Arriarán, entre 2015-2018. Se determinó el número de pacientes que alcanzó rango terapéutico con dosis inicial, cuántos requirieron ajuste y sus características. RESULTADOS: Se monitorizó 104 concentraciones totales. Para vancomicina 65 concentraciones plasmáticas eran basales encontrándose fuera de rango terapéutico 56,5%; de los que requirieron ajuste, 25% fueron neonatos con mayor probabilidad de estar fuera de rango versus otros (p = 0,022). Para amikacina la Cpeak estuvo en rango en 60% de mediciones; 15,4% requirió ajuste incluyendo pacientes con fibrosis quística y oncológicos. No fue necesario efectuar ajustes en pacientes sin co-morbilidad. CONCLUSIÓN: La medición de concentraciones plasmáticas es necesaria para ajustar de forma individualizada la dosis, especialmente en pacientes pediátricos con fibrosis quística, oncológicos y en neonatología, donde es más probable no alcanzar rango terapéutico con las dosis iniciales.

BACKGROUND: The monitoring of antimicrobial therapy through plasma levels makes it possible to determine the optimal dosage of antimicrobials, an essential approach in pediatrics. AIM: To describe the monitoring of plasma antimicrobial levels and dose adjustment in the pediatric population to determine if the doses used reach therapeutic ranges. METHODS: Retrospective, descriptive study using a database with measurement of plasma levels of amikacin and vancomycin in pediatric patients at San Borja Arriarán Hospital between 2015-2018. The number of patients who reached the therapeutic range with the initial dose, how many required adjustment and their characteristics were determined. RESULTS: 104 total levels were monitored. For vancomycin 65 plasmatic levels were baseline, being outside the therapeutic range 56.5%; 25% of those requiring adjustment were neonates with a higher probability of being out of range versus others (p = 0.022). For amikacin, Cpeak was in range in 60% of measurements; 15.4% required adjustment, including patients with cystic fibrosis and cancer, without adjustments in patients without comorbidity. CONCLUSION: Measurement of plasma levels is necessary to individually adjust the dose, especially in pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis, oncology and in neonatology where it is more likely not to reach a therapeutic range with initial doses.

Caracterización clínico-epidemiológica de las enterocolitis necrosantes neonatales de siete hospitales públicos

Resumen Introducción: Enterocolitis necrosante (ECN) representa una elevada mortalidad y morbilidad post-quirúrgica, gastrointestinal y del neuro-desarrollo. Existe limitada información en Chile. Objetivo: Describir el comportamiento clínico/epidemiológico de recién nacidos que cursaron con ECN. Pacientes y Métodos: Estudio multicéntrico descriptivo de pacientes con ECN de siete hospitales de Santiago, Chile, durante el 2016. Se realizó estadística descriptiva y análisis univariable/multivariable (software SPSS v22). Resultados: Se recolectaron 75 casos. Mediana de edad al diagnóstico fue 11 días, el promedio de edad gestacional 29 semanas y peso de nacimiento 1.285 g. La incidencia fue 2,6 por 1.000/recién nacidos vivos y letalidad de 18,6%, mayor en ≤ 750 g, ≤ 25 semanas y ECN quirúrgica. Hubo aislamiento microbiológico en 45,3% y se utilizaron 19 distintos esquemas antimicrobianos empíricos para el tratamiento de ECN. El análisis multivariable mostró tendencia a que la ECN fuese quirúrgica en usuarios de catéter umbilical arterial, PCR > 10 mg/L y aislamiento microbiológico, y hubo tendencia a fallecer en usuarios de catéter umbilical arterial. Discusión: Es el primer estudio multicéntrico que recopila información de datos locales. La incidencia fue similar a la descrita en la literatura médica, en cambio la letalidad fue algo menor. No existen consensos del tratamiento antimicrobiano a utilizar. Con estos resultados esperamos avanzar en mejorar el diagnóstico y unificar tratamientos antimicrobianos, para reducir cifras de morbimortalidad.

Abstract Background: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) presents high mortality and postoperative, gastrointestinal and neurodevelopmental morbidity. There is limited information about NEC in Chile. Aim: To describe the clinical/epidemiological behavior of newborns who underwent NEC. Methods: Multicenter descriptive study of patients with NEC from seven hospitals of Santiago, Chile, during 2016. Descriptive statistics and univariate/multivariate analysis were performed (SPSS v22 software). Results: 75 cases were collected. Median days of life at diagnosis was 11, gestational age was 29 weeks, birth weight 1,114 g. The incidence was 2.6 per 1,000 live newborns and mortality was 18.6%, higher in ≤ 750 g, ≤ 25 weeks and surgical NEC. There was 45.3% microbiological isolation and 19 different empirical antibiotic schemes were used for the treatment of NEC. The multivariate analysis showed a higher risk of surgery in umbilical arterial catheter users, CRP > 10 mg/L and positive microbiological isolation. The highest risk of death was in umbilical arterial catheter users. Discussion: This ie the first multicenter study that collects local data information. The incidence was similar to that found in medical reports but with a lower mortality. There is no consensus of antibiotic treatment to use. With these results we hope to advance in improving the diagnosis and unify antimicrobial treatments, to reduce morbidity and mortality figures.

Meningitis aséptica por virus parotídeo asociada a la vacuna

Resumen Comunicamos el caso de un lactante mayor previamente sano, que luego de tres semanas de recibir la vacuna SPR (sarampión, parotiditis, rubeola) presentó fiebre, aumento de volumen parotídeo y compromiso de conciencia. Se diagnosticó una meningitis aséptica, con pleocitosis en el LCR de predominio mononuclear, detectándose virus parotídeo en LCR por biología molecular. En el Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile se realizó serología (IgM e IgG) que resultó positiva. La muestra de saliva confirmó la etiología por virus parotídeo con genotipo N. La evolución fue favorable, sin secuelas al seguimiento a seis meses. Ante esta situación clínica, se revisó la información respecto a la asociación y causalidad de esta entidad clínica y vacuna SPR, focalizado en diferentes cepas del virus parotiditis.

Abstract We report the case of an older infant with no prior morbidity that approximately 3 weeks after receiving MMR vaccination (measles, mumps, rubella) was hospitalized for feverish symptoms, increased parotid volume and compromised consciousness. Aseptic meningitis was diagnosed, detecting pleocytosis in the CSF, predominantly mononuclear, and confirming by molecular biology, presence of parotid virus in CSF. A study was carried out by the Institute of Public Health of Chile, where serology (IgM and IgG) was positive. Saliva sample confirmed the etiology of parotid virus with genotype N. The evolution was favorable and at 6-month follow-up, there were no sequelae. Given this clinical situation, information regarding the association and causality of this clinical entity and the MMR vaccine, focused on different strains of the mumps virus, was reviewed.

Antimicrobianos en neonatología. Parte I: Recomendaciones de dosificaciones basadas, en la más reciente evidencia en recién nacidos Comité Consultivo de Infecciones Neonatales, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología / Antibiotics in neonatology. Part I: Dosage recommendations based on the most recent evidence in newborns Advisory Committee on Neonatal Infections, Chilean Society of Infectious Diseases

Resumen Los antimicrobianos son los medicamentos más utilizados en los neonatos durante su primer mes de vida cuando se encuentran en unidades neonatales, principalmente por el alto riesgo que presentan de adquirir infecciones graves como la sepsis. La mayoría de estos antimicrobianos se utilizan con dosis extrapoladas en base a las recomendaciones en población adulta y niños mayores, a pesar de que la fisiopatología en los recién nacidos es absolutamente diferente. Lo anterior lleva a un mayor riesgo a que ocurran más efectos adversos los que pueden conducir a una mayor toxicidad y a fallas terapéuticas, entre otros. En la última década se han realizado mayores estudios farmacocinéticos de antimicrobianos en neonatos; esta reciente evidencia ha permitido nuevas recomendaciones de dosificación considerando el peso y la edad gestacional del recién nacido, entre otras variables, de acuerdo al antimicrobiano estudiado. En base a una mayor evidencia sobre el comportamiento farmacocinético de los antimicrobianos en neonatos, se ha elaborado este documento para así facilitar y promover su correcto uso en las unidades neonatales.

Abstract Antibiotics are the most widely used medications in neonates during their first month of life in neonatal units, mainly due to the high risk they present of acquiring serious infections such as sepsis. Most of these antibiotics are used with extrapolated doses based on the suggestions in the adult population and older children, despite the fact that the pathophysiology in newborns is absolutely different. This leads to a higher risk of more adverse effects occurring, which can lead to greater toxicity and therapeutic failures, among others. In the last decade more and more pharmacokinetic studies of antibiotics have been carried out in neonates, this recent evidence has led to new dosage recommendations taking into account the weight and gestational age of the newborn, among other variables, in agreement to the antibiotic studied. Therefore, based on the need to order and summarize the most up-to-date and most evidence-based information on antibiotics in neonates, this document was prepared to facilitate and promote its correct use in neonatal units.

[Clinical-epidemiological characterization of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis of seven public hospitals]. / Caracterización clínico-epidemiológica de las enterocolitis necrosantes neonatales de siete hospitales públicos.

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) presents high mortality and postoperative, gastrointestinal and neurodevelopmental morbidity. There is limited information about NEC in Chile. AIM: To describe the clinical/epidemiological behavior of newborns who underwent NEC. METHODS: Multicenter descriptive study of patients with NEC from seven hospitals of Santiago, Chile, during 2016. Descriptive statistics and univariate/multivariate analysis were performed (SPSS v22 software). RESULTS: 75 cases were collected. Median days of life at diagnosis was 11, gestational age was 29 weeks, birth weight 1,114 g. The incidence was 2.6 per 1,000 live newborns and mortality was 18.6%, higher in ≤ 750 g, ≤ 25 weeks and surgical NEC. There was 45.3% microbiological isolation and 19 different empirical antibiotic schemes were used for the treatment of NEC. The multivariate analysis showed a higher risk of surgery in umbilical arterial catheter users, CRP > 10 mg/L and positive microbiological isolation. The highest risk of death was in umbilical arterial catheter users. DISCUSSION: This ie the first multicenter study that collects local data information. The incidence was similar to that found in medical reports but with a lower mortality. There is no consensus of antibiotic treatment to use. With these results we hope to advance in improving the diagnosis and unify antimicrobial treatments, to reduce morbidity and mortality figures.

[Aseptic meningitis due to mumps vaccine. Case report and review of the literature]. / Meningitis aséptica por virus parotídeo asociada a la vacuna.

We report the case of an older infant with no prior morbidity that approximately 3 weeks after receiving MMR vaccination (measles, mumps, rubella) was hospitalized for feverish symptoms, increased parotid volume and compromised consciousness. Aseptic meningitis was diagnosed, detecting pleocytosis in the CSF, predominantly mononuclear, and confirming by molecular biology, presence of parotid virus in CSF. A study was carried out by the Institute of Public Health of Chile, where serology (IgM and IgG) was positive. Saliva sample confirmed the etiology of parotid virus with genotype N. The evolution was favorable and at 6-month follow-up, there were no sequelae. Given this clinical situation, information regarding the association and causality of this clinical entity and the MMR vaccine, focused on different strains of the mumps virus, was reviewed.

[Antibiotics in neonatology. Part I: Dosage recommendations based on the most recent evidence in newborns Advisory Committee on Neonatal Infections, Chilean Society of Infectious Diseases]. / Antimicrobianos en neonatología. Parte I: Recomendaciones de dosificaciones basadas, en la más reciente evidencia en recién nacidos Comité Consultivo de Infecciones Neonatales, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología.

Antibiotics are the most widely used medications in neonates during their first month of life in neonatal units, mainly due to the high risk they present of acquiring serious infections such as sepsis. Most of these antibiotics are used with extrapolated doses based on the suggestions in the adult population and older children, despite the fact that the pathophysiology in newborns is absolutely different. This leads to a higher risk of more adverse effects occurring, which can lead to greater toxicity and therapeutic failures, among others. In the last decade more and more pharmacokinetic studies of antibiotics have been carried out in neonates, this recent evidence has led to new dosage recommendations taking into account the weight and gestational age of the newborn, among other variables, in agreement to the antibiotic studied. Therefore, based on the need to order and summarize the most up-to-date and most evidence-based information on antibiotics in neonates, this document was prepared to facilitate and promote its correct use in neonatal units.

Direct costs of low respiratory infection due to RSV in children under one year. / Costos directos de infección respiratoria baja por VRS en menores de un año.

INTRODUCTION: Considering the high prevalence of respiratory infections in hospitalized infants with Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), the objective of this study is to determine the direct costs of this infection. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Prospective longitudinal study in infants under one year of age hospitalized due to RSV during 2015. The patients were divided into 2 groups, Group 1 pa tients without risk factors and Group 2 patients with risk factors (prematurity, oxygen dependence, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, heart disease, immunocompromised patients), comparing each other variables such as nutritional status, gender, breastfeeding, discharge diagnosis, radiological diagno sis, length of hospital stay, among others. Direct costs for hospitalization were estimated according to the fees of the National Health Fund (FONASA) and the Modality of Institutional Care (MAI). RESULTS: The total patients admitted in the period were 260: 234 (90%) in Group 1 and 26 (10%) in Group 2. The average hospital stay for Group 1 was 7.3 days (SD+5.1) with a median of 6 days, and 13.6 days (SD+16.3) for Group 2 with a median of 7 days (p < 0.05). The direct costs associated with RSV hospitalization were on average CLP $ 413,529 (US$ 632.1) for Group 1, and CLP $ 744,260 (US$ 1,137.6) for Group 2 (p < 0.05). There was also statistically significant higher cost for Group 2 due to tests and drugs (p < 0.05) and costs per day of hospital stay (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These values, known for the first time in the national reality, confirm the high cost of these infections and particularly in risk groups.

Costos directos de infección respiratoria baja por VRS en menores de un año / Direct costs of low respiratory infection due to RSV in children under one year

INTRODUCCIÓN: Dada la alta prevalencia de infecciones respiratorias en lactantes hospitalizados por Virus Respiratorio Sincicial (VRS), el objetivo de este estudio apuntó a determinar los costos directos de esta infección. PACIENTES Y MÉTODO: Estudio prospectivo longitudinal en lactantes menores de un año hospitalizados por VRS durante el año 2015. Los pacientes se dividieron en 2 grupos. Grupo 1 sin factores de riesgo y grupo 2 con factores de riesgo (prematurez, oxigeno dependencia, displasia broncopulmonar, cardiopatía, inmunodeficiencia), comparando entre sí el estado nutricional, género, lactancia materna, diagnóstico de egreso, diagnóstico radiológico, tiempo de estadía, entre otras. Se estimó costos directos por hospitalización según aranceles del Fondo Nacional de Salud (FONASA) y Modalidad Atención Institucional (MAI). RESULTADOS: Ingresaron 260 pacientes distribuidos, 234 en grupo 1 (90%) y 26 en grupo 2 (10%). El promedio de estadía hospitalaria fue 7,3 días (DS+5,1) para grupo 1 y 13,6 días (DS+16,3) grupo 2 (p < 0,05), con medianas de 6 y 7 días, respectivamente. El costo directo asociado a hospitalización por VRS fue en promedio CLP $ 413.529 (632,1 US$) para grupo 1 y de CLP $ 744.260 (1.137,6 US$) para grupo 2 (p < 0,05).También hubo significancia estadística por mayor costo en grupo 2 para el rubro exámenes y medicamentos (p < 0,03) y costos por días de estadía hospitalaria (p < 0,05). CONCLUSIÓN: Estos valores por primera vez conocidos en la realidad nacional, confirman el alto costo de estas infecciones y, en particular, en pacientes perte necientes a grupos de riesgo.

INTRODUCTION: Considering the high prevalence of respiratory infections in hospitalized infants with Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), the objective of this study is to determine the direct costs of this infection. PATIENTS Y METHOD: Method: Prospective longitudinal study in infants under one year of age hos pitalized due to RSV during 2015. The patients were divided into 2 groups, Group 1 patients without risk factors and Group 2 patients with risk factors (prematurity, oxygen dependence, bronchopulmo nary dysplasia, heart disease, immunocompromised patients), comparing each other variables such as nutritional status, gender, breastfeeding, discharge diagnosis, radiological diagnosis, length of hos pital stay, among others. Direct costs for hospitalization were estimated according to the fees of the National Health Fund (FONASA) and the Modality of Institutional Care (MAI). RESULTS: The total patients admitted in the period were 260: 234 (90%) in Group 1 and 26 (10%) in Group 2. The avera ge hospital stay for Group 1 was 7.3 days (SD+5.1) with a median of 6 days, and 13.6 days (SD+16.3) for Group 2 with a median of 7 days (p < 0.05). The direct costs associated with RSV hospitalization were on average CLP $ 413,529 (US$ 632.1) for Group 1, and CLP $ 744,260 (US$ 1,137.6) for Group 2 (p < 0.05). There was also statistically significant higher cost for Group 2 due to tests and drugs (p < 0.05) and costs per day of hospital stay (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These values, known for the first time in the national reality, confirm the high cost of these infections and particularly in risk groups.

Osteomielitis vertebral por Bartonella henselae: a propósito de un caso / Bartonella henselae vertebral osteomyelitis: report of a case

Resumen: La enfermedad por arañazo de gato (EAG) causada por Bartonella henselae tiene prevalencia e incidencia desconocida en la población pediátrica chilena. La presentación como linfoadenopatía regional es la más frecuente, y sus formas atípicas constituyen un reto diagnóstico. Objetivo: Comunicar un caso de EAG con osteomielitis vertebral y entregar posibles lineamientos respecto al tratamiento. Cuadro clínico: Escolar de 8 años con síndrome febril prolongado y dolor dorsal con rigidez cervical. En estudio destaca IgG para Bartonella henselae positiva, ecotomografía abdominal con microabscesos esplénicos y resonancia magnética con lesiones vertebrales sugerentes de osteomielitis. Discusión: El diagnóstico de las formas atípicas requiere de un alto índice de sospecha, como en este caso, en que el paciente con síndrome febril manifiesta sintomatología musculoesquelética, lo que nos lleva a estudiar posibles complicaciones de la enfermedad. El conocimiento actual del tratamiento de EAG atípica o complicada se deriva de la observación de estudios de casos y no de ensayos aleatorios; se sugiere analizar de manera individual la terapia antimicrobiana y con ayuda de especialistas. Conclusión: Se discute y enfatiza la importancia de la alta sospecha clínica y se exponen algunas alternativas de tratamiento en función de la evidencia de la literatura actual.

Abstract: Cat scratch disease (CSD) is caused by Bartonella henselae, with unknown prevalence and incidence in the Chilean paediatric population. Regional lymphadenopathy is the most common presentation, while atypical forms constitute a diagnostic challenge. Objective: To report a case of CSD with osteomyelitis and present guidelines regarding treatment. Clinical case: An eight year-old patient, with prolonged febrile illness, back pain and neck stiffness. Laboratory studies highlight positive IgG for Bartonella henselae. The abdominal ultrasound showed splenic micro-abscesses, and the MRI showing vertebral lesions suggestive of osteomyelitis. Discussion: The diagnosis of atypical forms requires a high rate of suspicion, as in this case, in which the patient manifested the musculoskeletal symptoms simultaneously with the febrile syndrome, which led us to study possible complications of the disease. Current knowledge of the treatment of atypical or complicated CSD is derived from the observation of case studies, rather than randomized trials. It is suggested that antibiotic therapy is analysed individually, with the help of a specialist. Conclusion: The importance of high clinical suspicion are emphasised and discussed, as well presenting some treatment options based on the evidence from the current literature.

Actualización Consenso Neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica: Segunda parte. Prevención / Update. Consensus on Ventilator Associated Pneumonia: Second Part: Prophylaxis

Ventilator associated pneumonia is a life threatening disease, in spite of advances in its treatment, consequently the development of prevention strategies is a key factor in improving the morbidity and mortality in intensive care units (ICU). The new developments in this field in the last years led to the need to update the recommendations done in 2001. Then, a new search and analysis of scientific literature was performed. The obtained data support different strategies highlighting: semi-recumbent position at 45° of patients; incorporation of routinely oral hygiene procedures with chlorhexidine; preference of orotracheal intubation; performing subglotic aspiration; use of standard hand hygiene techniques; not routine change of ventilator circuits; and defining bundles to organize the work at ICU. Some strategies were recommended for being of similar efficacy to others but cost-effective as: use of heat and moisture humidificators; and changing humidificators every 5 to 7 days. The use of open or closed endotracheal suctioning system does not affect the incidence of pneumonia. Some recommendations were not incorporated because of lack of evidence supporting effectiveness, controversial data or doubtful application to our country as selective digestive decontamination.

La neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica ha persistido como una enfermedad relacionada a una alta mortalidad, a pesar de los avances que se han tenido en tratamiento. Es así que, hacer énfasis en la prevención de ésta, es fundamental para mejorar la morbi-mortalidad de las unidades de cuidados intensivos (UCIs). Los nuevos enfoques reportados en esta materia en los últimos años, hicieron necesaria la actualización de las recomendaciones hechas el año 2001. En vista de esto, se realizó una nueva búsqueda y análisis de la literatura científica. La información obtenida apoya diferentes intervenciones destacando: el uso de la posición semisentada a 45°; la higiene oral, de rutina, con clorhexidina; preferencia de la vía endotraqueal para intubación; realización de aspiración subglótica rutinaria; uso de las precauciones estándares; evitar el cambio rutinario de los circuitos de ventilación mecánica; y desarrollar paquetes de medidas ("bundles") que permitan organizar el trabajo en las UCIs. Algunas estrategias fueron recomendadas con datos de similar eficacia, pero mejor costo efectividad como: el uso de humidificadores higroscópicos; y el cambio de humidificadores cada 5 a 7 días. El uso de sistemas de aspiración abiertos o cerrados no afecta la incidencia de neumonía. Algunas recomendaciones no fueron incorporadas por falta de evidencia que asegurase su efectividad, datos controversiales o posibilidad dudosa de aplicación a nuestro país como la descontaminación intestinal selectiva.

[Tuberculosis in health care workers from a public health service in Santiago, Chile]. / Tuberculosis en el personal de salud del Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Sur de Santiago, Chile.

OBJECTIVE: To evalúate the risk of tuberculosis (TBC) among health care workers (HCW) of the Southern Metropolitan Health Service (SMHS) of Santiago, Chile. METHOD: A retrospective study using records of patients receiving TBC treatment in the SMHS from 2001 to 2006 was performed, in which HCW were identified. Total population of HCWs at risk was calculated using annual records of personnel hired at the SMHS. Data on TBC cases and rates were compared against data of the SMSH and hazard ratio (HR) and confidence intervals obtained. RESULTS: Fourteen cases were identified, predominantly among auxiliary personnel (n: 4, 35.7%), nursing staff and ambulance drivers (n: 2, 14.3%) each). Cases occurred in personnel from 41.7% of hospitals and 10.3% of ambulatory care centers within the SMHS and 92.2% involved personnel with direct patient care or contact. Pulmonary localization was seen in 11 (78.6%), and more than half (57.2%) had a positive sputum stain or culture. All cases initiated treatment, but 1 abandoned it and other died of liver failure associated to cirrhosis (7.1% each). Between 2003 and 2006, the annual rate of TBC among HCW ranged between 0 and 79 per 100.000, and during 2004 it was higher than the rate observed in SMHS (Hazard ratio 4.56; IC(95): 1.83-10.62). [corrected] CONCLUSIONS: Despite TBC rate decline in Chile, this disease still represents a significant occupational risk for HCW. Notably, more than half of cases among HCWs are contagious, and despite treatment, some have a lethal evolution.

Tuberculosis en el personal de salud del Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Sur de Santiago, Chile / Tuberculosis in health care workers from a public health service in Santiago, Chile

Objective: To evalúate the risk of tuberculosis (TBC) among health care workers (HCW) of the Southern Metropolitan Health Service (SMHS) of Santiago, Chile. Method: A retrospective study using records of patients receiving TBC treatment in the SMHS from 2001 to 2006 was performed, in which HCW were identified. Total population of HCWs at risk was calculated using annual records of personnel hired at the SMHS. Data on TBC cases and rates were compared against data of the SMSH and hazard ratio (HR) and confidence intervals obtained. Results: Fourteen cases were identified, predominantly among auxiliary personnel (n: 4, 35.7 percent), nursing staff and ambulance drivers (n: 2, 14.3 percent) each). Cases occurred in personnel from 41.7 percent of hospitals and 10.3 percent of ambulatory care centers within the SMHS and 92.2 percent involved personnel with direct patient care or contact. Pulmonary localization was seen in 11 (78.6 percent), and more than half (57.2 percent) had a positive sputum stain or culture. All cases initiated treatment, but 1 abandoned it and other died of liver failure associated to cirrhosis (7.1 percent each). Between 2003 and 2006, the annual rate of TBC among HCW ranged between 0 and 79 per 100.000, and during 2004 it -10.62). Conclusions: Despite TBC rate decline in Chile, this disease still represents a significant occupational risk for HCW. Notably, more than half of cases among HCWs are contagious, and despite treatment, some have a lethal evolution.

Objetivo: Evaluar el riesgo de tuberculosis (TBC) clínica a través de un estudio retrospectivo sobre la razón de prevalencia de TBC entre el personal de salud (PS) del Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Sur de la Región Metropolitana (SSMS) y la población de la misma zona. Método: Los casos entre el PS y el resto del SSMS, junto a la población total y la dotación del PS, se obtuvieron de los registros existentes en el propio SSMS (2001-2006). Resultados: Se identificaron 14 casos, afectando predominantemente a técnicos paramédicos (35,7 por ciento), enfermeros y conductores de ambulancia (14,3 por ciento) cada uno). El 92,9 por ciento de los afectados laboraba en el área clínica. Los casos se presentaron entre el PS de hospitales y consultorios. Los afectados involucraban al 41,7 por ciento del total de hospitales y a 10,3 por ciento de los centros de atención primaria. La localización fue predominantemente pulmonar (78,6 por ciento) y más de la mitad tenía frotis o cultivo de expectoración positivo (57,2 por ciento). Todos los casos iniciaron tratamiento, 12 lo completaron con éxito (85,7 por ciento), uno lo abandonó y el restante falleció por falla hepática asociada a cirrosis (7,1 por ciento cada uno). La tasa entre el PS varió entre 0 y 79 casos por 100.000 y el año 2004 fue significativamente superior al valor registrado en el SSMS (razón de nesgo 4,56; IC95: 1,83 -10,62). Conclusiones: A pesar de la declinación de la TBC en Chile, aún representa un riesgo ocupacional para el PS. Notablemente, más de la mitad de los casos son bacilíferos y algunos casos tienen una evolución letal.

[Tuberculosis in healthcare workers]. / Tuberculosis en el personal de salud.

Tuberculosis (TB) is an occupational risk hazard that explains 5 to 5.361 additional cases of TB per 100.000 individuals among healthcare workers (HCW) in relation to general population in developing countries. For each clinical case a number of additional infections are occurring, that can be detected by tuberculin skin test conversion among non-BCG vaccinated HCW or by interferon-gamma testing. Risk factors for HCW infection include number of TB patients examined, job characteristics and place of work, delay in diagnostic suspicion, patients with multidrug resistant strains, limited access to appropriate ventilation systems, non-compliance with aerosol dissemination precautions, immune suppressed and/or malnourished HCW. Molecular studies suggest that only 32 to 42% of TB cases among HCW are related to occupational exposure. Useful measures to prevent occupational TB acquisition include a number of administrative-, infrastructure- and personal-related measures that have proven to be successful in reducing occurrence of new infections including clinical TB cases among HCW. In Chile, two official government sponsored guidelines are currently available for preventing TB infection among HCW, issued by the national TBC Control Program and by the National Nosocomial infection Control Program. Major differences in recommendations between these guidelines indicate that an update is urgently needed.

Tuberculosis en el personal de salud / Tuberculosis in healthcare workers

Tuberculosis (TB) is an occupational risk hazard that explains 5 to 5.361 additional cases of TB per 100.000 individuals among healthcare workers (HCW) in relation to general population in developing countries. For each clinical case a number of additional infections are occurring, that can be detected by tuberculin skin test conversion among non-BCG vaccinated HCW or by interferon-gamma testing. Risk factors for HCW infection include number of TB patients examined, job characteristics and place of work, delay in diagnostic suspicion, patients with multidrug resistant strains, limited access to appropriate ventilation systems, non-compliance with aerosol dissemination precautions, immune suppressed and/or malnourished HCW. Molecular studies suggest that only 32 to 42 percent of TB cases among HCW are related to occupational exposure. Useful measures to prevent occupational TB acquisition include a number of administrative-, infrastructure- and personal-related measures that have proven to be successful in reducing occurrence of new infections including clinical TB cases among HCW. In Chile, two official government sponsored guidelines are currently available for preventing TB infection among HCW, issued by the national TBC Control Program and by the National Nosocomial infection Control Program. Major differences in recommendations between these guidelines indicate that an update is urgently needed.

La tuberculosis (TBC) es un riesgo ocupacional que explica entre 5 y 5.361 casos por 100.000 personas en el personal de salud (PS) por sobre la población general en países en vías de desarrollo. Cada caso clínico implica que han ocurrido muchos casos de infección. Esta infección puede ser detectada por la prueba de conversión de tuberculina entre personas no vacunadas o por prueba de liberación de gama interferón. Los factores de riesgo incluyen la frecuencia de pacientes con TBC atendidos, la función y lugar de trabajo del PS, retraso en la sospecha diagnóstica, atención de pacientes con cepas multi-resistentes, sistemas de ventilación limitados, falta de aplicación de precauciones por aerosoles y PS con inmunosupresión o desnutrición. Los estudios moleculares han permitido aclarar que sólo 32 a 42 por ciento de los casos en el PS responde a adquisición ocupacional. Las medidas útiles para prevenir este riesgo incluyen un conjunto de disposiciones administrativas, de infraestructura y precauciones en el personal que han permitido reducir el riesgo de infección, y en ocasiones el de TBC clínica, en el PS. En Chile existen actualmente dos normas reguladoras sobre la materia, una del Programa Nacional de la TBC y el otro del Programa de Infecciones Intrahospitalarias, las que difieren en algunos aspectos sustantivos y que ameritan una revisión.

[Precautions in the care of patients hospitalized with H5N1 avian influenza]. / Precauciones en la atención de pacientes hospitalizados por influenza aviar H5N1.

Several agencies have proposed infection control guidelines for management of patients admitted with the diagnosis of avian influenza. These guidelines aim to prevent transmission from the patient to hospital personnel and other inpatients. The guidelines presented here by the Advisory Committee of Nosocomial Infections have been elaborated for the local medical community after reviewing currently available recommendations. Key recommendations include admission to an isolation ward, cohorting of confirmed cases, hand hygiene with antiseptic solutions, use of N95 type masks, non-sterile disposable gloves and eye protection equipment during examination or when performing aerosols-generating procedures. Use of patient-exclusive clinical instruments, daily disinfection of the hospital ward, implementation of measures to reduce risk of needle stick injuries and eye splashing, and reinforcement of appropriate sampling and transport of blood and other corporal fluids, are also recommended.

[Acute respiratory infections in children of day care center: characteristics and costs]. / Características y costos directos de infecciones respiratorias agudas en niños de guarderías infantiles.

The clinical profile of respiratory infections in 140 children who attend a day care center was described in a prospective study and direct costs were estimated. The costs estimation included diagnostic procedures, laboratory exams, drugs, kinesitherapy, parents' absenteeism, medical certificates and hospitalization. Two hundred and two respiratory episodes in 90 (64.2%) children, 75 (37.1%) in 30 infants and 127 (62.8%) in 60 toddlers were analyzed. There were 61.3% lower respiratory infections in infants versus 39.4% in toddlers (p < 0.002). Antimicrobials were prescribed in 42.6% of the medical attendance. Infants represent major costs regarding medical consultations, kinesitherapy, laboratory tests and refunds for medical certificates or leave of absence (p < 0.001). The mean global cost of a respiratory infection was US $ 129,3 for infants and US $ 53,0 for toddlers (p < 0.001). This situation needs the development of an intervention program.